Bennett (2001) Organisational Theory

Bennett, N. (2001). Power, structure and culture : an organizational view of school effectiveness and school improvement. In Harris & N. Bennett (Eds.), School effectiveness and school improvement : alternative perspectives (pp.98-112). London : Continuum.

Bennett's basic premise for this chapter is that organizational theory can provide insights for schools and the ways in which to improve themselves, but this is often overlooked. The process of school improvement is often seen in terms of change of culture and then the problems will be fixed. Whereas the fundamental aspect - that schools are by the very nature organisations is overlooked and the academic fields writing on school improvementand organisational theory very rarely coincide and tend to be separate fields of endeavour. Bennett suggests that there needs to be a sharper focus on seeing connections between the two fields.

Just as with the attempt to nail down a definition of information literacy, it seems that the academics have "no clearly agreed view of what an organization is, nor how it should be analyzed". p.99. Given this claim, is it any wonder that the school improvement camp haven't really want to get into bed with the organizational theory mob!

Scott (1987) has three basic organizational systems identified:

1. Rational systems - characterized by "highly formalised social structure"






2. Natural systems - characterized by the "sharing of a common goal'






3. Open systems - characterized by being "strongly influence by their environment", negotiated goals and/or coalition or interdependence with inputs - process - outputs model

According to Bennett "the school effectiveness movement rests on a rational open systems model". p 99

Bennett posits that "this makes it easy to see the process of educational activity as one of "adding value" to the "raw material" of the input". Possibly statements like these are the very reason why the two branches of research rarely intersect - for those with the effectiveness of educational organizations at the core of their vocation - this is an odious goal. Working in England during the early 2000s has given me a healthy aversion to the educational application of statements such valuing adding. Having students in your class AND the pay bonuses your receive at the end of the academic year dependent upon statistical analysis (solely upon this in the case of the pay bonus) was anathema to why I become a teacher. And yes Bennett wrote this in 2001 and talks about the debate over the "fairness of government league tables". The Daily Telegraph readers in the UK might think that league tables for schools is a good thing - try working in a school that is under OFSTED special measures or in a school that has an OFSTED report which suggests that if you value your child's life and education you want NEVER contemplate sending them to that school. As a teacher working under those perceptions it makes the primary focus of improvement the educational outcomes of your students nigh on impossible some days. My three years working the UK state school system was an eye opener and it is sad to see that Australia hasn't learnt from the mistakes of the Blair/Gordon government.

Removing emotion from the examination of schools as organizations - you can see why the RATIONAL OPEN SYSTEM is the model that the school effectiveness movement have hit open. The basic attributes of schools are:

• schools' raw material - the students they receive each academic year






• possesses a formalized social structure - for both staff and students this can be quite rigid






• emphasis on a limited set of measurable outputs - NAPLAN, School Certificate and HSC results - school reports feed into this as well






• lack of emphasis on process-related issues

Bennett outlines that with the OPEN SYSTEMS view of schools and colleges - analysis of the learning community to ascertain where improvement can be made may need to

• stress a process as much as a product (TEACHING AND LEARNING)




• stress the interdependence of different parts of the organization (structure) which can be fluid and dynamic (FLEXIBILITY, COLLABORATION)



• stress the interdependence of organizations (WORKING WITHIN BROADER SYSTEMS AND CONTEXT)



• stress the need to keep the organization in a "reasonably stable condition" (HARD UNDER CERTAIN POLITICAL CLIMATES???!!!)



• stress the importance of each part of the organization is kept informed of what is going on elsewhere that might affect its work (COMMUNICATION)



• see that organizations should be seen as STATIC forms but as DYNAMIC PROCESSES.



• see the organization as being possessed of members rather than tasks - more organic in which members see the organization as having the capacity to adapt and grow in relation to its environment

Bennett demonstrate that if writers focus upon RATIONAL/TECHNICIST view of organizations emphasis the following:

• detailed task specification



• routinized work



• uniform procedures and consistency



• see management as oversight - ensuring that routines are correctly adhere to and procedures (not processes) are followed



• quality control rather than quality assurance



• see the organization as being possessed of tasks rather than members - in which members of the organization see change being instituted by management decisions (an activity rather than a collaborative process)

Bennett suggests that despite which view of organizational theory you follow there are "certain basic propositions about organizations that would probably gain widespread acceptance " p 101 Organizations:

• have members;



• have a purpose, which gives rise to both the core tasks of the organization and the technology or technologies through which it is carried out;



• have to acquire and retain resources;



• required some sort of structure through which to ensure that the tasks are carried out and the purpose met.



• are both identifiably similar and different - something makes one distinguishable from another.

MEMBERS

Fundamentally - members ARE the organization.

School could be classified as "total organizations" (those which key members had not choice over membership or right to leave). Certainly in the climate of the raised school leaving age - with the "captured" students who are trapped at school until they are 17 - would certainly argue that schools are "total organisations".

Membership to the organization can often be enunciated through rules and regulations to which the members have to adhere. In schools these are articulated in very tangible ways for both students and staff - code of conduct is oft cited in New South Wales Department of Education school and just watch for the eye rolling when you bring up the subject of school rules - classroom, playground, uniform or otherwise with students.

Rules and regs can take the form of:

1. informal norms



2. informal expectations



3. officially sanctioned norms and expectations



4. whole organization (universal)



5. limited to specific tasks or areas of work

PURPOSE

"Schein (1992) points out that organizations are artefact's: human creations, not naturally occurring phenomena" p 102 "In addition, organization purposes, tasks and technologies may be influenced, if not indeed defined, by agencies external to the organization itself."p.102 Anyone working in modern educational systems would resonate with that statement. Education is a political hot button issue which invariably becomes a foundational plank in any political party's mandate to be elected. Policy initiatives are then required to be undertaken by school, which often rarely gets a say in the agenda setting process.

Also - "schools are widely recognizable within and indeed across societies and those that do not conform to those wider institutional norms come under enormous pressure to do so." p. 102 - being a political football is another side issue!

RESOURCES

"... often understood as either financial resources or as "raw material" to be processed. ...range of expertise that can be purchased within the financial resources that are obtained. .... include members ..." p.102

Looking are resources from a dispassionate angle, they can be costly or cheap (depending on availability), skills, knowledge and expertise are all resources which can be financially acquired, used effectively and efficiently OR NOT depending on the output of the organisation.

STRUCTURE AND TASKS

tasks = fulfilling the purposes of the organization

structure = created to exploit its resources so as to deliver the activities involved in fulfilling its purposes

"Structures imply that tasks and responsibilities are allocated and that resources reach the right place at the right time" p. 103

Structures all mean members are influenced or directed, and ACCOUNTABILITY.

"Mechanistic views of organizations see structures as fixed, static entities that only change as a result of specific decisions by those who control them" p. 103

"Organic views see structures as capable of developing in an almost living way." p. 103

Bennett remind us that "structures only function because of the actions of the organizational members who work they shape. Membership can change and with it the ways in which the structure operate. Purposes can change, as can what is externally defined as legitimate, and these can affect the structuring of the core task. Technologies available to members in discharging those core tasks can also develop, placing structures under pressure."

So how does this relate to being a TL in a school. A TL can be central to the teaching and learning context if the structures within the school allow it be so, the members of the school (students and teaching staff) see as a place in which teaching and learning can take place. If membership changes - new year group needs to be enculturated into the ways of the library, and new staff need to see that the library and TL are important and helpful in their core purpose. Purpose can change - the principal may determine new roles for the TL or cut the library program altogether (it happened in LA!) and of course, the ever-changing technologies all impact on the organization structure of schools and libraries - as TLs we need to adapt the structures to the new technologies - easier said than done. As Bennett contends "Structures, then, should be seen as dynamic entities, even when there is no change apparently taking place." p 103.

ETL504 - TL as Leader

Donham, J. (2005). Leadership. In Enhancing teaching and learning : a leadership guide for
school library media specialists (2nd ed.) (pp. 295-305). New York : Neal-Schuman
Publishers.

First reading

Donham's chapter deals with the concept of leadership for TLs.

Bennis (1999) outlines a set of traits for successful leaders in business:

1. technical competence
2. conceptual skill
3. people skills
4. judgement
5. character

Covey (1990) talks about leadership involving the "circle of influence defining around those things that a person can control". "Leaders act from an internal locus of control" page 296 In a lot of ways it is the perspective and attitude brought to the role of TL which can see an individual fulfil the leadership potential of the role in any school or not. As Gandhi would suggest - be the change you want to see. The concept of being one who has a external or internal locus

Hartzell (2000) discusses the importance of being proactive. "Hartzell suggests that proactive people look for change opportunities, they anticipate and prevent problems, they take action and tend to persevere (page 297)" A positive attitude, looking within to see what the individual can bring to the external factors in order to make the change for the better the leader wishes to see.

Collins (2000) - Good to Great - has two bits of advice which Donham thinks are important:

1. understand what you can and cannot be best at.
2. pursue what you are deeply passionate about.

"A library media specialist (TL) who intends to take a leadership role must exhibit a set of critical skills and understandings that being with a vision" (page 298)

What is needed for VISION?

Fullan (1996) suggests three attributes for a sound vision:

1. "sharedness" - the degree to which it is shared
2. "concreteness" - the degree to which people have some concrete image of what it will look like
3. "clarity" - the degree to what people are skilled in carrying it out.

Which then require people skills

• collaborative skills
• effective communication skills
• listen actively
• negotiate
• earn the professional confidence of colleagues

And technical skills

• ability to organise information sources effectively
• to use information efficiently

Donham makes the important point that 'having influence requires establishing one's expertise, working collegially with others, articulating one's ideas clearly, maintaining a good "say-do" ration (one does what one says one will do) and establishing processes for continuous reflection and assessment. (page 300)."

The pertinent factors in gaining influence necessary for leadership require separating out.

1. EXPERTISE - with the ever-changing nature of the TL's role and the context within which TLs are working it is necessary to undertake continuous professional development - to have the finger on the educational and information technical pulse - or as Covey describes it "sharpening the saw" - If as TL you aspire to being a leader then you should be "always looking for learning opportunities to expand and update (your) expertise" p. 300

2. WORKING COLLEGIALLY - these people skills are at the heart of the leadership function of a good TL - it is so easy to remain cossetted in a wonderfully rarefied world of the library - living like a dragon in your cave, protecting the books and devouring small children who annoy you -but this does not ensure that the library is a place when knowledge is created and teaching/learning is the core function of its existence. If as TL you aspire to being a leader then you should be "modelling best practice with technology or initiating conversations about new resources, .... to bring (your) special expertise to bear on curriculum and instruction." page 300

3. CLEARLY AND ARTICULATE COMMUNICATION - self -evident

4. "SAY-DO" RATIO NEEDS TO BE HIGH - follow through and be accountable

5. REFLECTION AND SELF-ASSESSMENT - undertake systematic reviews and continually seek to improve, value feedback.

Donham describes this as leading from the middle. TLs as in the unique position in many schools to be able to work with all teachers and students and can offer a holistic appraisal

STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP involves

1. anticipating what needs to happen (VISION AND PROACTIVE - easily perceived vision and clearly communicated)
2. devising a plan to set the course of action (ACTION PLANNING)
3. organising resources to carry out the plan for success.
4. assessing progress (BENCHMARKS AND OUTCOMES)
5. readiness to seize opportunities as they arise (OPPORTUNISM - able to define and utilise a critical moment - or STRATEGIC MINDSET)

Reeves (2002) defines strategic leadership as the simultaneous act of executing, evaluating, and reformulating strategies, and focusing organizational energy and resources on the most effective strategies.

Part of leadership - is the communication of the common purpose and the role the TL and the library plays within this - needs to be articulated. The importance of policy documents and mission statements cannot be underestimated. "the mission statement will provide a focus for developing the goals and objectives of the program. Again, these goals must then align with the school's mission and goals in order to connect the library program with its constituency." (page 302)

And what about the call for the strategic mindset - IF AS A TL YOU ASPIRE TO BE A LEADER THEN YOU SHOULD

• be active in committees,
• be active in task forces
• be active in brainstorming sessions
• be active in leadership teams
• be active in whatever forms idea-generating groups take within the school.

REFLECTION

This should not be overlooked and should be considered fundamental to professional practice. Effective leaders reflect periodically on progress made and goals yet to be met." page 303.

Three questions to ask

• what will I do differently from what I did last year/time?
• what will I stop doing that I did last year/time?
• how and when will I know that I am making progress?

Donham recommends journal ling - on-line blog such as this - to help in the all important reflection. Along journalling he also suggest mentoring as a good way to show and develop leadership within the profession.

FINALLY - ACTION STRATEGIES - THINK BUT DON'T FORGET TO ACT!

• Identify you special expertise
• Develop your skills in other areas as required
• Increase the visibility of the library program with a homepage
• Have a vision and mission statement on the homepage
• Ensure a link from the school's home page to the library's homepage
• Volunteer on committees

Information Age and its ecology

When you consider the context of the modern information age the startling facet of this era is the rapidity within which information and news can be transacted. Ever changing landscapes and factors have always something societies have dealt with, yet it is the pace of the change which seems to be at warped speed. What does this mean for those who are trying manage libraries!!

Winzenried writes of the context as being 'a world that has taken change as a constant and embraced a series of technologies that are forever minimising the distances between people otherwise separated by thousands of kilometres and across all manner of cultural divides.' p 6 (Visionary leaders for information. Welcome to the global village.

HOW IS IT POSSIBLE FOR A MANAGER IN A MODERN LIBRARY TO 'ORGANISE' MATERIALS IN A WAY THAT IS SUITABLE TO PEOPLE WHO ARE CONSTANTLY OPERATING INDEPENDENTLY? This requires a complete rethink of librarians as managers - their scope and function. How do you organise the movable feast? And in a world in which resources are limited "each and every meeting, decision, agreement that is made demands a cost'. Do libraries have a future, if an individual can many of the functions that a library and librarian carries out (with a great deal of expense) independently and at a fraction of the cost!!????

ORGANISATIONAL CHALLENGE

What is the core business of libraries? Winzenried would argue that is "knowledge creation" but in the economic rationalist era where accountability reigns, you need to demonstrate this knowledge creation with actual KPIs or some other form of evidence. Just to say that a person is learning is not enough - nor should it be. But does a librarian apply a business model to their role as manager??? It seems somewhat counter to the core business of what a library and other educational institutions do - As Winzenried points out "Education in all its aspects has the intangible product of changing minds of humans- of making a difference, of growing knowledge' And while that might leave you with a nice warm fuzzy feeling, knowing that you are pursuing a noble profession - it does not ensure that the budgets aren't going to be cut - that you might be seen as an unaffordable luxury in an age of limited resources and infinite access to information - cut out the middle man and let the individual create their own knowledge.

Moral purpose - you can have the moral high ground to underpin your argument but there needs to be more than this to support the argument. Any business does need to clearly understand and articulate what the core values they operate upon. For those managing information it is simple and clear - whilst information and knowledge creation might be intangible - it is an essential daily activity.

The current context of the information age - described by some as digital anarchy (which seems to be somewhat melodramatic) is often seen as the solution to the problem of what to do with libraries and librarians - the information age with all its technological wizardry will be able to provide all the information for knowledge creation - making libraries and librarians obsolete - which is convenient because they are resource intensive.

"Information provision needs to be firmly based around a defined purpose and it needs to consider the individual in a special way." p 8

George W. Bush would agree that you might have the moral imperative but you need a road map - so whilst the information might be out there for all to use - a CLEAR PLAN in the manner in which it is to be used is ESSENTIAL. And with this clear plan it needs to be RESPONSIVE to the needs of the clients - so in a high school, the changing needs of the students whether it be the introduction of the national curriculum or the latest new social networking craze or web 2.0 tool to help them engage, share, create and understand - and this is predicated on RELATIONSHIPS. "If information management is to be truly client responsive then there needs to be a close relationship between manager and client.' Which is supported by much of the pedagogical writings of the past ten years which stress that at the core of all good teaching and learning is the relationship. Relational aspects of knowledge creation is highly valued by the current generation and should be valued by the managers of information provision now.

And the last part of the equation is PRODUCT FOCUS - ensuring that your customers are happy and satisfied with the service they are getting "making that data so useful to the client that they can use the material in a way that makes a difference to their lives' page 9

1. moral purpose
2. clear plan
3. responsive to client needs
4. built on relationships
5. clear focus on product delivery

So ultimately "there does need to be a personal dimension and the library remains the most well-positioned vehicle for this." page 10

What this means for the high school setting is that the TL needs to firmly establish relationships with all students, and not just the frequent fliers who come into the library on a daily basis. The playground refugees are grateful for a place to be themselves, but the TL needs to be actively seeking to have all teachers and students accessing the library both during school hours and at the point of need - at home (more than likely at ten o'clock the night before the assignment's due). The five cornerstones that Winzenried points out are the conditions in which the ecology of the information age can thrive so that librarians get to manage the information delivered to their clients and knowledge creation continues unabated. The best win:win possible.

Arthur Winzenried - Visionary Leaders for Information

INTRODUCTION

Winzenried begins his chapter to his book- Visonary Leaders for Information - outlining the historical perspective of libraries.

There are many examples of libraries or archives that have been managed throughout history. They are often housed in glorious buildings and some of which travellers are lucky enought to visit even today. His main point in beginning with the history of libraries to give sense of what has been before and how the modern context is something that is different from the "traditional" idea and to large extent, function of a library and therefore, librarians.

"These early libraries or archives maintained a collection of physical records in some degree of ordliness for the use of government bureaucracies and selected scholars. With restrictions on materials, writing skills and the other factors of the times, those collections were necessarily finite and thus "mangaeable".' page 1

One of the many challenges that faces the 21c librarian is to not have the population still view the function and scope of the librarians in the same manner - that they manage finist resources - mainly physical resources such as books and that the scope and function of a librarian and libraries is contained with the four walls of a building during the open hours of that institution. As Winzenried points out that they the previous idea and function of libraries had a formula which "was simple and widely understood' and these preconceieved notions may be very hard to change.

In terms of the management model that was used within libraries by librarians, after the Industrial Age "allowed an increasinly fixed and predictable management model that was AUTOCRATIC AND METHODICAL'. page 2 This may be somewhat comforting to many as it is inherently predictable and as Winzenried points out it even had the "assembly line" thinking behind many of the processes that occured in the library - the stacking, ordering, processing of items could have individuals assigned to that task and never overlap - and of course, achieving the aim of being "highly organised and efficient' p. 3 which all good libraries should be!

With the growth of materials that libraries were housing, there was a call for an effective categorising system which would streamline the storage and retrieval of items and along come Melvil Dewey (1876) and his influential system which is now commonplace in many libraries across the globe. Yet as with the previous centuries, libraries collections still reamined "physical and finite' p 3 And in the twentieth century this did not really change - only the advent of "new technologies alllowed more convenient means of locating items in these larger collections and users came from a greater variety of classes, places and societies. Larger libraries and card catalogues were an almost universal expectation for the first half of the twentieth century" p 3.

Shifts in the latter half of the twentieth century, especially with the rise of the "personal computer" has impacted on libraries and management functions of librarians. PCs meant that accessing of library materials through computer searches could be done in a matter of seconds rather than a drawn out process. Data entry of all the catalogued information for the millions upn millions of items became an additional function for librarians.

Digital developments meant that much of the data entry could now be achieved through scanning of the information - reducing errors and rapidly speeding up the process. "All of thse technologically driven changes took place over a rather limited time, becoming part of a new climate of change that was set to challenge traditional management tools" p.4 And coupled with that is that this rapid change has NOT seen that rapid change in the core understanding of what a librarian does. Lee and Winzenried state that with all the technology often used every effectively within libraries, the library person often is seen by many as something of a computer guru - yet within schools this is often not the case. Colleagues and students limiting the scope and function of the librarian as someone who just stacks books on the shelves and can recommend a good book or help with an assignment. And this comes from the fact that libraries "generally fulfilled the same functions in the same way' p 4 with very few changes - so why would the average library user view the library or those who work in them any differently than they have been.

The development of the internet or the web has seen probably the most profound impact on libraries and the management of these for librarians. 'The ease with which information can be circulated and the extent to which it can be circulated is the major "new" feature of the present information landscape. ... For the information manager, managing something that is self-perpetuating is in itself something of a 'new' and different concept' p. 5 So libraries now have a large part of them which is no long physical or finite - and this has enormous ramifications of those who need to manage the information and resources of these institutions.

Herring's Chapter One

Chapter One:
The Big Picture: learning and teaching in today's schools


from
Herring, James E. (2011) Improving Students' Web Use and Information Literacy - A Guide for Teachers and Teacher Librarians. London : Facet Publishing.

Herring contends in his introduction that "most students do not use the web effectively, and are unlikely to transfer what they are taught about web use across the subject which they are studying." (p. xiii) Transference is a thorny issue for all educators. In particular, the high school setting is codified and delivers subjects in discrete units. This does not encourage students to view their learning within the one learning community as connected and therefore there is little if any transference of learning from one subject area to another. Whilst on one hand Herring's statement does not surprise, the fundamental skills of using ICT, which is a mandatory requirement in every KLA, would seem to be the one thing that students could READILY transfer. So the question remains why they don't? Perhaps it comes from the manner in which students view the tasks they are completing and not viewing the skills required to navigate and use the web effectively as part of the "pencil case" that they take with them to every class. "It is very important to have a common terminology when teaching information literacy and web use to students" p. 13

The enthusiastic, passionate, time-rich dreamer part of me see the role of the TL as fundamental to showing students and teachers that these skills are required in all subjects and perhaps if a common metalanguage was used and an agreed set of skills through the various stages explicitly taught and consolidated, then there would be much greater chance of transference of the invaluable skills all learners need to successfully navigate the information rich waters of the web.
As Herring writes - " the aim is to change staff and students in schools from web users to critical web learners" (p. xiii)

The modern teaching and learning context is one in which many educators find themselves dealing with the political initiatives of governments. As the perennial election platform along with law and order, health and transport - education gets all the clever and new ideas in a cyclical fashion. This means that the state of play for teachers and students in constantly changing and the pace of change will not lessen with the addition of technology into the mix. As Australian educators have found - thanks to Kevin Rudd - DER laptops are now in schools and something that educators have to deal with. Now whilst some educators shudder at the thought of having their role dictated by trends and political conveniences, the technology must be seen as a tool to be harnessed and not just used because it is the latest and greatest. The use of any technology NEEDS to have a pedagogical foundations - otherwise it is as a lecturers once crudely put it to me, "a bit like a dog licking its balls - it does it because it can".

Herring points out that "the use of ICT in schools is now often viewed as a sine qua non for learning and teaching." (page 2) But often the technology is not being utilised to its full capacity and that means that expensive bits of kit being under-utilised, students are bored quite often, and teachers generally resistant and frustrated.

As Herring stated in his introduction with regards to the issue of students not transferring their web use knowledge and skills between subject, he makes the related point that "there is often no systematic approach to teaching web use." Which in the context of web 2.0 and the emphasis in most schools to create innovative, life long learners who can contribute to the 21 century context they find themselves in - seems like a breathtaking oversight.

Just as literacy and numeracy was finally accepted from the mid 1990s onwards, as a whole school, cross-KLA responsibility, so too does the teaching of information literacy skills and the effective use of the web. These skills are too important, too fundamental and deemed MANDATORY in every subject, so they too need to be given a whole school approach and not the sporadic and piece-meal approach which is currently commonplace in so many schools.

"Web use and information literacy skills should be part of each student's learning and the focus in school should be on how students can use information literacy skills to enhance their learning. Learning from e-resources is the key educational factor here, not the students' increased use of the web. Teachers and teacher librarians who reflect on how effectively their students learn, and not just on what the students learn, and who also reflect on their teaching, will be making a great contribution to the overall aim of the school: to educate students." p.2

The purposes of education and schools.

Whilst the purpose of educating a population of citizens can have a wonderfully positive outcome which has been valued and pursued for millennium - peace, freedom, social justice and general advancement of society and civilisation. The purpose of schools, whilst falling under the rubric of education, has a narrow focus or purpose than that of "EDUCATION" which is life-long and on-going. Ryan and Cooper, according to Herring have identified FOUR KEY PURPOSES

1. INTELLECTUAL - academically challenging work
2. POLITICAL AND CIVIC - developing active citizens
3. ECONOMIC - provide a skilled workforce to increase society's overall wealth
4. SOCIAL - development of socially acceptable habits.

How does this apply to the role of the TL???

"...developing student who effective users of information literacy skills ...

• improve students' academic work
• extend their knowledge of active citizenship
• prepare them for the workplace (effective information practices a desirable skill)
• encourage good social habits (sharing websites or social networking etiquette)

Identifying how information literacy skills, including web sue, fit into the overall purposes of the school can enable teachers and teacher librarians to meet wider aims, for example, encouraging students to apply their information literacy skills to all subjects (TRANSFERENCE) and from school to work." page 4

Pritchard's definitions of learning:

• a change in behaviour as a result of experience or practice
• knowledge gained through study
• gaining knowledge of, or skill in, something through study, teaching, instruction or experience
• the individual process of constructing understanding based on experience from a wide range of sources.

Learning theories such as behaviourism (rote learning, chunking information to be learnt, scaffolding) and constructivism (two broad groups) have been commonplace in schools. The major difference between the two learning theories is that constructivism views learners are NOT merely receptacles of knowledge passed on by a teacher - students are CONSCIOUS CONSTRUCTORS OF KNOWLEDGE - that learning is an active not passive activity. And of course, behaviourism is an outdated approach.

Herring encourages the current learning theory of choice - constructivism as the basis for teaching students who to use the web effectively. Pritchard's summary of the key aspects of constructivist learning :

• prior learning is a key factor as students construct new knowledge from what they already know
• students will (if encouraged) make connections between ares of knowledge and will reflect upon them
• the social context of students' learning is important in influencing how students learn
• learning is very personal and students who are effective learners will be able to reflect on their own learning

Teachers and Teacher librarians should be reflective practitioners as much as their students need to be reflective learners.

"Learning theories, in the context of the development of information literacy skills in schools, should be seen as abstract concepts, but as the basis on which teachers and teacher librarians design and develop opportunities for students to learn to be effective learners." p.6

How to put theory into practice?

A TL or a teacher needs to be very clear about what they want the students' to learn, describe it in terms that their students can understand, select appropriate information that will aid in the students' learning, encourage students to link their prior learning to the new concepts and skills and finally relate this to other areas of learning. SIMPLE!

All this learning needs to take place in a suitable environment - creating an atmosphere which help students to engage. And then give the students opportunities to demonstrate their learning and understanding either through application or presentation.

LESSON PLANNING - an essential requirement which needs to be done collaboratively with the classroom teacher if you are TL. And as Herring points out "incorporating information literacy skills into curriculum is a very effective and meaningful way of introducing students to these skills" p. 8

Incorporating the web into teaching

1. the web as a source of resources for personal staff development - so teachers can extend their subject knowledge by finding websites or articles on the web (p. 9)
2. the web can be a resource for teachers to plan activities for students in the classroom (p 11)
3. the web can be used a resource which provides students with mediated sites, which have been vetted by the teacher and, in many cases the TL in a particular school

Students will need to develop the skills to evaluate website - but in order to complete a specific task it might be more pertinent to streamline the "search" and have the students focus on engaging with the concepts and material which has been expertly selected for them rather than aimlessly wandering around the Internet trying to find appropriate information - which for some topics is hard to find. It can also be very demotivating for students if they cannot readily find the information required to complete the task.

Having the "sites" and "sources" pre-prepared means that the activity can be an in-class one, providing equal access to information and eliminating the "digital gap" which exists for some students. Students can also be active learners in the professionally selected information - Killen suggests that this is an essential step in what good teachers do so that they can help their students gain the understanding which is outlined in the learning outcomes.

Effective teachers and teacher librarians set appropriate challenges for students using the web, according to the abilities and learning styles of the students. p 13

Herring is an advocate of "inquiry based teaching" and "to be successful practitioners of inquiry based teaching, teachers and teacher librarians need to collaborate to ensure that their students have the requisite information literacy skills, abilities and techniques to use web resources effectively." p.13

Library Donkey

JULIAN SMITH - I'm Reading a Book